Over the past 12 years, Yemen has experienced significant shifts in territorial control and alliances amid ongoing conflict and widespread hardship. The Houthi armed group, also known as Ansar Allah, seized the capital city of Sanaa on September 21, 2014, after advancing south from their northern stronghold in Saada.
This Iran-aligned group capitalised on public anger following government fuel subsidy cuts in July 2014, mobilising protests that demanded the reversal of these decisions and the government’s resignation. They formed an alliance with forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, enabling them to capture key military and state institutions.
Fragmented control and fractured alliances in Yemen
Following the Houthi takeover of Sanaa, then-President Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi fled to Aden in February 2015. As Houthi and Saleh-aligned forces advanced towards Aden, Hadi sought refuge in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. In March 2015, Saudi Arabia launched a military intervention aimed at restoring Hadi’s internationally recognised government.
By late 2016, Yemen was divided into rival zones of control. The Houthi-Saleh alliance dominated Sanaa and much of the northern and western regions, which are home to the majority of Yemen’s population. Pro-government forces, backed by Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, controlled territories in the south and east. Meanwhile, Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) maintained influence over parts of the south.
The alliance between the Houthis and Saleh fractured in late 2017 when Saleh appeared poised to switch sides. This led to brief fighting between the two groups, culminating in Saleh’s death in Sanaa in December 2017. Subsequently, the Houthis, primarily a Zaidi Shia group, assumed sole control over much of northwestern Yemen, including Sanaa and the port city of Hodeidah.
Continued conflict and divided opposition forces
Despite a prolonged Saudi-led air campaign, the coalition failed to restore Hadi’s government in Sanaa. The Houthis maintained control over the northwest highlands, while government-aligned forces held extensive areas in the south and east. AQAP continued to hold pockets of influence.
The December 2018 Stockholm Agreement paused a government offensive on Houthi-held Hodeidah, a critical entry point for food, fuel, and aid. Neither side achieved a decisive victory, and divisions among anti-Houthi groups weakened efforts to consolidate government authority.
The UAE-backed Southern Transitional Council (STC), which took control of Aden in 2019, operated separately from government forces despite being part of the Saudi-led coalition. The STC clashed with the government multiple times, undermining unity among anti-Houthi factions. President Hadi eventually transferred power to an eight-member Presidential Leadership Council (PLC), ending his presidency without regaining the capital.
Recent developments and renewed offensives
Negotiations between Saudi Arabia and the Houthis raised hopes for peace and led to a truce in April 2022. However, Yemen remained divided. The Houthis continued to control the northwest, while the STC sought to expand its influence in the south, aiming for an independent state. Government forces retained control over much of the east, contested by separatists.
By 2025, the Houthis had held Sanaa and most of the northwest for over a decade. Government-aligned forces operated across the south and east. The Houthis launched attacks on shipping in solidarity with Palestinians in Gaza, prompting retaliatory strikes from Israel, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Yemen’s coastline and the Bab al-Mandeb strait became focal points of a broader regional confrontation.
Government forces recaptured Hadramout and al-Mahra from the STC, which had seized these governorates in December 2025. Saudi airstrikes and a government advance fractured the STC’s leadership. Although a delegation in Riyadh announced the STC’s dissolution, coalition officials in Yemen rejected this, and the STC leader Aidarous al-Zubaidi fled the country.
The Presidential Leadership Council aimed to unify anti-Houthi groups, but establishing a single command remained incomplete. In early September, Houthi forces attacked west of Taiz to cut road access to the Red Sea coast. Government forces initially claimed gains in Hais and western Taiz, but the port city of Mocha fell on September 10 after the National Resistance Forces (NRF) withdrew.
By September 11, government sources reported Houthi advances into Dhubab and Mayyun Island, completing their takeover of Yemen’s Red Sea coast. The fighting displaced nearly 130,000 people, including 71,000 children, within three weeks, according to UNICEF.
PLC Chairman Rashad al-Alimi called for a general mobilisation and offered amnesty to defecting Houthi fighters. Government forces intensified air and ground operations in Taiz, while Saudi Arabia sought support from Pakistan and Turkiye amid ongoing Houthi attacks.
On October 4, the internationally recognised government launched Operation Dawn of Yemen, a major offensive aimed at retaking areas including Sanaa. The Southern Giants Brigades fought alongside government troops and former STC units. The government claimed to have recaptured positions around Dhubab and Bab al-Mandeb, as well as mountain positions in Haifan, western Taiz, and al-Waziiya.
Fighting also spread to Marib, with government forces claiming strategic heights by October 13. However, the government lost territory in Taiz governorate, leading to a siege on the city of Taiz, a key government-held area, with the main road linking it to the south controlled by the Houthis.
The escalation worsened Yemen’s humanitarian crisis. By October 7, over 200,000 people had been displaced, including more than 3,700 who fled by sea to Djibouti, according to the International Organization for Migration. Government and Saudi-led coalition airstrikes increased, including attacks on Sanaa. Meanwhile, the Houthis launched repeated ballistic missile attacks on Saudi Arabia, including an October 10 strike on Riyadh’s airport that killed 13 people.
